Under his leadership, racial polarization reached new heights after Duvalier struck out against the mulatto elite. Then they dance until a spirit takes over their bodies and, it is said, heals them or offers advice. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. No sooner was Dessalines firmly established on his imperial throne than the order went forth for the total massacre of the White population. Since colonial times, mulattos have been seen as more European in culture, education, and lifestyle. Marcus Garvey was one of the twentieth century’s most influential leaders of black nationalism. The 19th century "independence debt" was not paid off until 1947. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. He was driven into exile in 1986. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. The revolution was complex, and there were several revolutions going on simultaneously. Jovenel Moise was sworn in as president in February 2017. Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment. Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps. History, Environment, Politics Make Haiti Poor With all eyes on Haiti, many have speculated about why the nation is the poorest in the Western Hemisphere. . Once a section of the island of Hispaniola with astounding natural beauty and lush greenery, Haiti has gone through such rampant deforestation and environmental degradation that you can actually see the results from space. He created his own militia, the Tonton Macoutes, to terrorize opponents and overbalance the power of the U.S.-trained army. Price-Mars insisted that Haitians recognize that their cultural roots were in Africa as well as France. Yet free coloreds continued to demand civil rights, unintentionally opening the way for a slave insurrection. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Geggus, David P. 2002. Montréal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal. It was born into a vacuum of cultural isolation which was exacerbated by racialized export and immigration policies by its neighbors. His brutality led black and mulatto officers to unite against him. George Floyd death: How will jurors be selected? On October 31, 1793, they emancipated all the slaves. Vodou was only recognized as an official religion in Haiti in 2002. Ethnic Composition of Haiti . The flag of Haiti is a bicolour flag featuring two horizontal bands coloured blue and red, defaced by a white panel bearing the coat of arms. Popular … Haiti (/ ˈ h eɪ t i / ; French ... (1791–1804), led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture. The palm is topped by the Cap of Liberty. The French established Haiti as a colony to grow sugar, using black slave labor. Until 1985, “Haitian” was a medically defined “risk group” for AIDS. For black people, Haiti represents the most beautiful story of strength, resistance and freedom that has ever been told. Although peasants, led by a charismatic small farmer named Jean-Jacques Acaau (d. 1846) could not force Boyer’s successors to respond to their demands, from this point the mulatto class began to rule through a series of black presidents. Around 19% of Haitians were online by 2019. Keep in mind Haiti is the first free black republic and the only one to have led a successful slave rebellion. Labelle’s Haitian informants agreed that each of these racial terms represented a specific mix of physical characteristics, especially skin color, hair texture, hair color, and facial features. Nicholls, David. On January 1, 1804, Dessalines declared the existence of an independent Haiti, and in 1805 a new constitution proclaimed that all Haitians were black, though more than half the generals who signed it were mulattos. Martin’s. Nevertheless, the “color question” was a major source of internal political conflict into the twentieth century. Haiti's Sans-Souci Palace : A journey to the past, Bloody day in Myanmar's main city sees 14 killed. ———. Since the early 1900s, sugar companies in Cuba and the Dominican Republic recruited Haitians as field workers. Haitian Revolutionary Studies. Labelle’s other major finding was that informants used these racial labels in class-specific ways. New York: Monthly Review Press. His army finally defeated Rigaud’s forces in 1800. Leading the 12 year long slave labor rebellion, Toussaint L’Ouverture, a national hero in Haiti, helped … During the long occupation, anger at U.S. racism fostered a new interest in Haiti’s African roots among urban intellectuals and the rising black middle class. His email address is cherlinger@ncronline.org.] That points to something systemic, stark and troubling. Berkeley: University of California Press. More about the Haitian Revolution via Wikipedia . 2006. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. Dubois, Laurent. 2004 - President Aristide leaves Haiti again amid a rebellion. France claimed one-third of Hispaniola, naming its colony Saint-Domingue. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Haiti’s colonial history began when the island was colonized by the Spanish who named it Santo Domingo, but the country’s Francophone identity began in the middle of the 1600s, when French-speaking buccaneers settled on the island’s western coast. Negro Refusing to denounce the violence of gangs that claimed to be his supporters, and unable to create a functioning government, Aristide was driven into exile in 2004 by a coalition of opposition groups and private militias, with the support of the United States. “Redrawing the Colour Line: Gender and the Social Construction of Race in Pre-Revolutionary Haiti.” Journal of Caribbean History 30 (1-2): 28–50. In season one, episode four, we learn that the reason the Black Brits of Bridgerton are on par—economically and socially— with the white characters is not because they are the mixed-race children of white male British colonists and free women of color from the Caribbean, nineteenth-century England’s actual Black children of “uncertain fortune,” in one historian’s words. This made it a threat at a time when the United States and … Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Encyclopedia.com. Translated by Asselin Charles. Athens: University of Georgia. Who truly was the most dishonest president? Between 1915 and 1929 there were as many as 300,000 Haitian workers in Cuba, and a similar number worked in the Dominican Republic. A terrible earthquake anywhere in the Caribbean would have hit a sympathetic nerve in most Americans. Deeply familiar with Haitian rural culture, Duvalier presented himself as the culmination of a long line of strong black Haitian leaders. The U.N. ranks the Dominican Republic 90th out of 182 countries on its human-development index, which combines a variety of welfare measurements; Haiti comes in at 149th. 2003. Video, How scientists got a very rare toad to breed, North Korea 'not responding' to US contact efforts, Met Police chief will not resign over vigil scenes, Arrests over assault on Muslim boy at Hindu temple, NI to still use AstraZeneca amid Irish suspension. According to the Haitian constitution since the time of independence, all citizens are to be referred to as black, where all races are considered equal to avoid prejudice. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. In the 1970s Labelle met many rural Haitians who said they had never seen a … Haiti is a very young country with more than half (approximately 54%) of its population under the age of 25 years. The term Negro emerged as a social and political marker for Africans south of the Sahara in the fifteenth century. Yet these tensions were usually confined to the cities. All Haitians speak Creole, but the government only recognized this as an official language in 1983. BIBLIOGRAPHY Thousands of wealthy light-skinned Haitians went into exile. But independence came at a crippling cost. A UN peacekeeping force was put in place in 2004 to help stabilize the country, and only withdrew in 2017. 1971 - Papa Doc dies and is replaced by his son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. "Haitian Racial Formations Aristide won Haiti’s first truly democratic election in 1990, and when the army drove him into exile eight months later, no one used racial labels to describe the event. It had to pay reparations to France, which demanded compensation for former slave owners. The presence of Haitians among the earliest victims of the mysterious new disease produced lurid theories that AIDS originated amid the orgiastic rites imagined to be part of Haitian Vodou. Haiti, State against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism. Afghanistan investigates ban on girls' singing, Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe appears in Iran court. So Spoke the Uncle. Similarly, there are well over 100,000 Haitians working on other islands throughout the Caribbean, often illegally. ." race as a dominant category of classification 2021 . assessment An earthquake in 2010 killed more than 200,000 people and caused extensive damage to infrastructure and the economy. Though 80 percent of Haitians identify themselves as Catholics, the Haitian Catholic Church, administered by white foreign bishops from 1860 to the 1960s, was long identified with the mulatto class. Brutal crackdown continues on Myanmar protesters. In Haiti voodoo believers pray and perform animal sacrifices to feed and beckon the spirits. Race labels also have a religious and linguistic significance. How a woman's death sparked UK soul-searching, North Korea 'not responding' to US contact efforts1, Met Police chief will not resign over vigil scenes2, Arrests over assault on Muslim boy at Hindu temple3, Bloody day in Myanmar's main city sees 14 killed4, NI to still use AstraZeneca amid Irish suspension5, The art dealer, the £10m bronze and the Holocaust6, Is there an algorithm for the perfect biryani?7, Afghanistan investigates ban on girls' singing8, US disaster agency to help with child migrant surge9, Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe appears in Iran court10. Is there an algorithm for the perfect biryani? Following the indigenous Tainos' near decimation from forced labor, disease and war, the Spanish, under advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas and with the blessing of the … Though the wealthiest members of Haitian society also include people who describe themselves as black, all mulattos are, by definition, members of the elite. Encyclopedia.com. In exchange for help in fighting these counter revolutionaries, the revolutionaries offered freedom to slave rebels. (March 14, 2021). In 1885 Firmin published De l’égalité des races humaines (On the Equality of the Human Races) in response to Gobineau’s influential Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines (Essay on the inequality of the human race, 1853–1855). Haiti won its independence after a long revolution that destroyed a lot of the country. Firmin directly challenged the racist anthropology of the day and suggested that race was a social construction. Leclerc had exiled Toussaint, but another black general, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758– 1806), forced Rochambeau to surrender. © 2021 BBC. Haiti’s racial terminology also has a geographic component. Although Haiti… Haiti became the world's first black-led republic and the first independent Caribbean state when it threw off French colonial control and slavery in the early 19th century. After independence, members of important mixed-race families used these characteristics to justify their political dominance. Following a 16-month embargo (June 1993-October 1994), Haiti returned to constitutional government in 1994. ." Price-Mars, Jean. ———, and John D. Garrigus, eds. This is best demonstrated by the explanations some U.S. medical researchers offered in the early 1980s to explain the emerging AIDS epidemic. 2004. Yet these tensions were usually confined to the cities. Far less capable than his father, “Baby Doc” presided over a series of economic crises, including foreign hysteria over AIDS in Haiti, which destroyed the fledgling tourist industry. The 1990s saw a worsening of poverty. They might share an island, but the Dominican Republic and Haiti couldn't be more different. Gradually the buccaneers became planters, importing hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans. In the 1980s and 1990s, however, politically active priests helped mobilize poor black parishioners. But when she asked individual Haitians to classify drawings of faces, they applied racial labels in ways that did not match their abstract definitions. Since the fall of the Duvalier regime in 1986, labels such as “black” and “mulatto” have been increasingly replaced in Haitian public discourse by a more frank discussion of the tensions between rich and poor, between urban elites and rural masses. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. When it declared its independence from France in 1804, Haiti defined itself as a “black” nation-state. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. 2002 (1879). Instead, a charismatic priest named Jean-Bertrand Aristide (b. LANGUAGE: Haitian Creole; French "Haitian Racial Formations According to the U.S. Census, there were nearly 750,000 Haitians living in the United States in the year 2000, and their experience has also been marked by racism. With the migration of various foreigners to Haiti following its discovery and subsequent occupation, various diseases spread, which are believed to be the cause of the extermination of its native population. In August of 1791, hundreds of slaves carried out a massive rebellion in the North Province. From 1879 on, the National Party dominated the presidency, though regional revolts still deposed individual leaders. Idéologie de couleur et classes sociales en Haïti. After Haiti gained its independence, the Poles acquired Haitian citizenship for their loyalty and support in overthrowing the French colonialists, and were called "black" by the Haitian constitution. More protesters and a police officer are reported dead elsewhere as anti-coup protests continue. 1951), took over the presidency. . The French Revolution which commenced in Paris in 1789 deeply influenced an eventual Haitian Revolution of 1791-1803. Born out of the only successful slave revolution in world history, Haiti remained diplomatically and culturally isolated throughout the nineteenth century in a Caribbean zone where slavery, colonialism, and racism were the norm. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. By the 1780s, slaves outnumbered French colonists ten to one in Saint-Domingue. He described Vodou as a theological system, not a collection of superstitions. But not all black leaders, especially military officers, would accept this “government by understudy.” By the 1860s, Haitian politics had become a rivalry between the mulatto Liberal Party and the black National Party. It is the story of a people who thrust off the chains of … [20] In 1980, approximately 12 percent of Haitians were living abroad, and that number rose dramatically in the following decades. VideoHow scientists got a very rare toad to breed. His inauguration ended a protracted electoral crisis that began in October 2015, when elections were annulled over allegations of fraud. Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. Anténor Firmin (1850–1911) was the most prominent antiracist intellectual in late nineteenth-century Haiti. Farmer, Paul. 1991 - President Aristide is overthrown by the military. He was re-elected in 2001, but many supporters had lost confidence in him. The coat of arms depicts a trophy of weapons atop a green hill and a royal palm symbolizing independence. The countryside, where high mountains kept peasants isolated, was stereotypically black. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press. A UN stabilisation force is put in place. ." 2010 - More than 200,000 people are killed when a magnitude 7.0 earthquake hits the capital Port-au-Prince and its wider region - the worst in Haiti for 200 years. RELIGION: Vodou; Roman Catholicism; Protestantism While his racial rhetoric appealed to Haiti’s black majority, Duvalier directed foreign aid and government revenues into his own accounts. Jean-Bertrand Aristide returns. To a large exte…, Children, Racial Disparities and Status of, https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/haitian-racial-formations, Politics and Politicians in Latin America, Racial Segregation in the American South: Jim Crow Laws. INTRODUCTION In 1915 the United States Marines invaded Haiti after several violent political riots in Port-au-Prince, and the United States ruled the country until 1934. Haiti Demographics. In the early 1970s, however, the Canadian sociologist Micheline Labelle found that Haitians used as many as 120 different racial terms, and that more than 95 percent of these labels were based on a set of between eight to ten terms. Further amendments were approved by the parliament in 2011 and took effect the following year. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere (after the United States) to win its independence from a European power. A businessman and the chosen successor of former President Michel Martelly, Mr Moise had never held political office before. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press. SEE ALSO Caribbean Racial Formations; Children, Racial Disparities and Status of; Firmin, Anténor; HIV and AIDS; Poverty; Racial Formations; Social Welfare States. 1990. The physician, diplomat, and anthropologist Jean Price-Mars (1876–1969) was the founder of Haiti’s Négritude movement of the 1920s and 1930s, which was begun in recognition and support of African cultures. Most of the Haitian population is made up of black Africans. In other words, light-skinned Haitians who are poor, without much formal schooling, are unlikely to be described as mulattos, regardless of their physical appearance. In Haiti, support has to be extended to black working-class Haitians, who constitute the majority of the population, and their basic needs met. Most analysts (e.g., Feagin…, eighteenth-century debates [Chris Herlinger is GSR international correspondent. Why is Haiti considerably poorer? © 2019 Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Garrigus, John D. 1996. Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. In 1941 he helped found the Bureau and Institute of Ethnology in Port-au-Prince, though this did not prevent a state-run “anti-superstition campaign” targeting Vodou practitioners that very year. the spread of "racism" The media reflect a range of views but the work of journalists is hampered by threats and violence, press watchdogs say. [113] At the same time, Firmin condemned both Vodou and the Creole language. On April 25, 1805, he published the proclamation that officially established Haiti as a Black state and banned Whites from its shores. By the early 1700s, many of Saint-Domingue’s male planters had had children with their slaves. 1990 - Populist priest Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide is the landslide winner in a presidential election, Haiti's first free and peaceful polls. Urban areas, especially Port-au-Prince, were historically the seat of mulatto power, because these families dominated foreign trade and the government offices. After the Taino indigenous people were killed the Europeans brought West African Slaves and this is why most Caribbean countries have large populations of African ancestry. Video, Brutal crackdown continues on Myanmar protesters, 'We women are pushed out of work because of childcare' Video, 'We women are pushed out of work because of childcare', How scientists got a very rare toad to breed. Throughout the decade, Haitians living in the United States lost jobs and were shunned by their neighbors because of this identification with the dreaded disease. On the other hand, emigration from Haiti has made racism more than ever a problem for Haitians leaving their country. In 1983 to deal with an outbreak of swine flu the US-backed government sent American vets and Haitian soldiers to kill all the pigs. In 1937 the Dominican army massacred between 10,000 and 30,000 Haitians after President Rafael Trujillo (1891– 1961) launched a program of “racial cleansing.” Nevertheless, Haitians continued to work on Dominican sugar estates into the 1990s. Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. 1957 - Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier wins elections. The island had as many free people of color as it had whites by 1780, and this included hundreds of wealthy French-educated mixed-race men and women. In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. French attempts to “civilize” Saint-Domingue included removing free mixed-race people from “respectable” society. The Uses of Haiti, 2nd ed. The other, the merchant and landowner Vincent Ogé (ca. Read about our approach to external linking. VideoBrutal crackdown continues on Myanmar protesters, US disaster agency to help with child migrant surge. 1999. Fernando called Haiti a cursed land due to the massacre of the Taino native by … In the Dominican Republic, average life expectancy is nearly … Thanks to Dessalines Haiti was created as an independent nation, and the world's first black republic. ed. Price-Mars’s book, Ainsi Parla L’Oncle (So Spoke the Uncle, 1928), written under the racism of the American occupation, led many Haitian intellectuals to reconsider their attitudes about peasant culture. These ethnic groups include Poles, Jews, Italians, Arabs, Chinese, Indians, French, Spanish, and Germans. Mr Moise was finally declared the winner of the November 2016 presidential elections by an electoral tribunal in January 2017. The Duvaliers’ corruption made it impossible for any Haitian politician to claim to represent the black majority. In 1789, two such men were in Paris when the French Revolution broke out. Other rural respondents identified mulattos as blancs, a term that means both “white” and “foreigner.”. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. New York: Bedford/St. Moreover, the country’s colonial experience had generated persistent divisions between Haitians of full African descent and those of mixed European and African ancestry. Labelle, Micheline. Is fighting a pandemic like fighting a war? Black and white have often been used to describe opposites such as good and evil, the Dark Ages versus Age of Enlightenment, and night versus day. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Most of these groups have intermarried with the blacks, leading to another group known as the mulattoes. In the North, Henri Christophe (1767–1820) established a self-consciously “black” kingdom, while in the West and South, Alexandre Pétion (1770–1818) headed a “mulatto” republic. Most Haitians are descended from black African slaves and … Firmin, Anténor. Chronic instability, dictatorships and natural disasters in recent decades have left it as the poorest nation in the Americas. . One reason why Haiti suffers more than its neighbours from natural disasters like hurricanes and flooding is its massive deforestation, under … The creole term nèg is derived from the French word negre (which means "black") and is used similarly to dude or guy in English. Dominicans and Haitians are black because of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Haiti's unique history and early black-led independence in 1804 resulted in a very different nation-state relative to the rest of Latin America. In addition, the ability to speak French is an important marker of mulatto social status. Haiti is bordered to the east by the Dominican Republic, which covers the rest of Hispaniola, to the south and west by the Caribbean, and to the north by the Atlantic Ocean. 1996. 'We women are pushed out of work because of childcare' Video'We women are pushed out of work because of childcare', The art dealer, the £10m bronze and the Holocaust, Grammys 2021: Seven things to look out for, How scientists got a very rare toad to breed. Haiti is also home to a small number of families of Middle Eastern descent. Evidence shows that colonists treated free mixed-race people as white well past the middle of the century. Haiti has been plagued by political violence for most of its history. In 1957 a popular reaction against the stronger army and more efficient state created by the United States brought a black country doctor, François “Papa Doc” Duvalier (1907–1971), into the presidency. Black is the darkest color, the result of the absence or complete absorption of visible light.It is an achromatic color, a color without hue, like white and gray. Though French has been the official language of Haiti since independence, only about 10 percent of Haitians can speak it fluently. Haiti is said to be discovered by the sailor Columbus on his trip to Asia, who claimed this island for the dwelling of the Spanish people and named it accordingly, which later came to be what we know today – HISPANIOLA. The motto L'Union fait la Force appears on a white ribbon below the arrangement. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/haitian-racial-formations, "Haitian Racial Formations Radio is Haiti's leading news medium and there hundreds of local, privately-owned stations. (See why Pat Robertson blames Haiti for the earthquake.) Conservative colonists plotted against revolutionary officials, and in June 1793 they rose against them. Although racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States have been afforded many opportunities, they have also experien…, The concept of race as a categorization system for human beings did not exist formally until the late eighteenth century. 1992. bibliography Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. POPULATION: 8,924,553 "The problem in Haiti is poverty," Dohner said, "It's simple." In 1802, French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) sent an expedition to Saint-Domingue. This island was … The Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, on the eastern side of the island, remained relatively undeveloped, with few whites or enslaved Africans. Because these “backwards” traits were a product of Haiti’s environment, he believed they would eventually be eradicated. Retrieved March 14, 2021 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/haitian-racial-formations. 14 Mar. 1994 - 20,000 US troops arrive to restore democracy. Cuba lies some 50 miles (80 km) west of Haiti’s northern peninsula, across the Windward Passage, a strait connecting the Atlantic to the Caribbean. But Lavalas splintered after U.S. troops returned Aristide to power in 1994. But mulatto politicians and businessmen were the real beneficiaries of the U.S. occupation, which brought foreign investment and the modernization of Haiti’s ports, army, and system of tax collection. Haiti is mostly known for its long devastating and frequently occurring earthquakes; but again, let me tell all my readers that Haiti is also known for its black magic and vodou. They were then required to pay a … Colonists were determined to limit voting to “pure” whites, and they executed Ogé and twenty-three of his supporters. Rebels increasingly came to join the revolutionary army, the most notable being Toussaint-Louverture (1743–1803), who had joined the rebels by July 1794. 1983 (1928). Plummer, Brenda Gayle. Haiti is a free market economy with low labor costs and tariff-free access to the US for many of its exports. Read about our approach to external linking. Slave Revolution in the Caribbean, 1789–1804: A Brief History with Documents. In the last decades, as the island is an important station in drugtrafficking, corruption appears to have infiltrated society, the institutions, and the political system. In the 1970s Labelle met many rural Haitians who said they had never seen a mulatto and did not know what one was. Instead, it is because the white king, George, fell in love with a Black … Haiti’s black politicians and intellectuals have historically claimed to represent the majority population, and criticized lighter-skinned Haitians as racist. 1915 - US invades following black-mulatto friction, which it thought endangered its property and investments in the country. 1978. Dessalines ordered the killing of the white French civilian and former slave owners who were stranded in Haiti in 1806, after the defeat of the French colonial army was totally normal in the context of the time. The practice was devastating to the native population. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. The answer is that the problem actually exists in Haiti. Labelle’s study confirmed what Haitian intellectuals have long maintained: The terms mulatto and black are more determined by social class than by physical characteristics. He eventually turned his administration into a brutal dictatorship. When Duvalier died in 1971, his son, Jean-Claude (b. Robertson's rationale is more than suspect, yet the differences between the two nations are undeniable. Slavery in Haiti started after the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492 with the European colonists that followed from Portugal, Spain and France. But the country’s fortunes did not … Life expectancy 61 years (men), 64 years (women).
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